The Exploitation of Native Imagery

Cover image from Radical Indigenous Survivance and Empowerment (R.I.S.E.). To honor and respect the tribes mentioned in this article, no visual representation of any sacred items, dances, ceremonies, photographs, etc. will be shown.

This article was originally published on Terra Incognita Media in 2017. I'm sharing this article on my personal blog with minor grammatical updates and revisions.

History of Native Imagery in Art

Historic black and white photographs of Native Americans in documentaries, books, stationery, or even on posters, are very likely to be one of the innumerable works of the photographer, Edward S. Curtis (1868-1952). Curtis was a photographer and ethnologist most known for his multi-volume series, The North American Indian. The photographic images in this series were taken between 1907-1927 and were meant to be a journal, of sorts, that documented “the vanishing race” of Native Americans. At the turn of the nineteenth century, the western U.S. was exploding with colonialist ventures. For the U.S. government, their biggest obstacle was conquering Native Americans and establishing power and control over their land and their resources.

By the sixteenth century, Native American communities drastically decreased due to colonization. According to Raphael Lemkin, there are two stages of genocide associated with colonization. The first is the destruction of the Indigenous community’s way of life. The second stage is imposing the colonizer’s way of life on the Indigenous group. [1] Lemkin believed that colonization in of itself was intrinsically genocidal. When settlers brought their "hopes and dreams" across the Atlantic, they also brought epidemic diseases, slavery, massacring of entire villages, the destroying of food sources, forced relocation, reservations, assimilation, and ethnocide. [2] Throughout this period, Native American communities continued to resist the constant threat of colonization. Edward S. Curtis recognized their struggle, but he believed that extinction was inevitable. This sense of mortality inspired his vision: to photograph the beauty of Native American culture before it faded away.

For centuries, European settlers depicted Native Americans as the “Bloody Savage” or “Bad Indian” – violent, wild, blood-thirsty, and less than human. Over four centuries, that depiction has rarely changed. In addition to Curtis, George Catlin and Frederic Remington shared similar morbid beliefs and sought to redefine long-standing negative depictions of Native Americans. Curtis, Catlin, and Remington wanted their documentation to focus on the lesser-known “Noble Savage” or “Good Indian.” The “noble savage” was in touch with nature, mystical, beautiful, brave, and dignified. Staying true to this depiction, all of these artists captured a romanticized “purity” of the “vanishing” Native American whose dignity and true-nature had been untouched by colonization.

Fans of Edward S. Curtis see him as unassailable because of the content and nature of his work. In contrast, critics of Curtis believe that he peddled a romanticized archetype of what "real Native Americans should look like.” However respectable Curtis’ methods, interactions, and intentions were, it would be irresponsible to disregard valid criticism of how his work continues to affect Native Americans and non-Natives alike. The archetype upheld through his imagery has been transformed into powerful stereotypes that affect modern-day Native Americans. In The Vanishing Race and Other Illusions, Christopher M. Lyman writes:

Roughly stated, Curtis‘s generation believed that Indians were only real Indians when they behaved as they were imagined to have behaved prior to contact with Whites. Scientists of his generation therefore studied Indians largely in those terms. These general beliefs led to the creation and perpetuation of stereotypes of “Indianness” still prevalent in American culture.[3]

He also states:

In keeping with traditions in White thought, Curtis was so affected by his perceptions of Indian “otherness” that he often overlooked the extreme diversity of the cultures he confronted and described Indians in terms of an imagined racial unity as the Indian.[4]

Native Activism Portrayed in the Media

In the nineteenth century, the ideology of Manifest Destiny prevailed throughout the U.S. This ideology stemmed from the belief that “…the expansion of the United States was divinely ordained, justifiable, and inevitable.”[5] In turn, this false doctrine is responsible for the removal and genocide of thousands of Native Americans. Edward S. Curtis not only believed in Manifest Destiny, but he also perpetuated the idea through his photography. Curtis attempted to remove any sense of colonization that Native Americans had already been adapting to in their own lives. Instead of this, Curtis made the artistic choice to “disavow Native agency, neglect colonial violence, and present Native peoples and their cultures as a ‘vanishing race.’”[6] Whether Native Americans were portrayed as bloody savages or as romanticized, peaceful figures, their imagery was utilized to portray the various degrees of colonialism through the lens of the non-Native artist or photographer. In this way, the appropriation of Native imagery by non-Natives became a tool of colonization. Catlin, Curtis, and Remington are careful about portraying a specific narrative and driving that narrative in all of their works. A dedicated attempted to erase the voices of Native people was intended and ensured throughout their practice.

Moving forward to the American Indian Movement (A.I.M.), a civil-rights organization founded in the late 1960s, we see a new movement dedicated to upholding and restoring Native American autonomy, self-determination, spiritual practice, sovereignty, and treaty rights. During the height of A.I.M. in the 1970s, national media coverage followed the founders and the group of activists intently. However, the media often failed to focus on the issues and topics A.I.M. hoped to highlight. Instead, the media appealed to stories that the white-majority would have considered “newsworthy.” Media outlets frequently neglected to investigate historical and contemporary issues that were at the heart of A.I.M. In a Time story in the late 1960s, A.I.M. activists were described as “the new American Indian” who were “no longer content to play the obsequious Tonto to the white man’s Lone Ranger.”[7] In contrast, during and after the Occupation of Wounded Knee in 1973, the media simplified the events as dangerous, militant activism. The media also framed A.I.M. members as fictitious characters battling each other for control and power. All of these various media depictions greatly influenced the way Native activism, resistance, and leadership was perceived across the nation. In effect, these negative and often hypocritical representations reduced the gravity of Native American issues in the United States.

Fast forward to 2016, when construction began on the Dakota Access Pipeline (DAPL). Keep in mind that the original pipeline route crossed the Missouri River north of Bismarck, ND.[8] The route was later rejected citing concerns over its proximity to water sources for Bismarck and surrounding areas. The finalized route passed through stolen treaty-land and Lake Oahe, the main water source for the Standing Rock Lakota Nation. The tribe and other environmental advocates stated that a leak in the pipeline would cause severe environmental damage and would pose health risks to residents of Standing Rock. Native Americans and other Indigenous people came together in an unprecedented act of solidarity against the DAPL that winter. For over a year, water protectors stood their ground, prayed, and conducted ceremonies in a peaceful protest at Standing Rock. In response, the U.S. government sent heavily armed, militarized police from 24 counties, 16 cities, and 9 different states.[9] In an act of violence, Energy Transfer Partners, the pipeline operator, hired private security guards who used attack dogs and noxious chemical agents on Water Protectors. Throughout the movement, mainstream media coverage was scarce and if any coverage was provided on the protests, Native community members were constantly portrayed as the “good Indian.” In a CBC news article, Duncan McCue shared an interesting perspective on the role the media plays in shaping Native American imagery. He states that for Native Americans to get [any] media coverage, they have to follow the “WD4 rule” which is that they have to be warriors, drumming, dancing, drunks, and dying.[10]

The role of the media and their reification of stereotypes has a profound impact on the way Native people are portrayed and discussed. The constant reinforcement of age-old stereotypes like the Bloody Savage or the Noble Savage distracts non-Natives from recognizing our humanity. By negating the complex social structures and systems that harm our communities, disrupt our cultures, and that lessen our identities (as we perceive and evolve them), mainstream media has become a tool of colonization, in many ways. This begs the question - when Native American leaders, movements, and activism are not represented in the media, where do non-Natives see Native Americans represented?

Native American Mascots in Sports

Native mascots are a common caricature in sports. We see these mascots on clothing, mugs, stickers and even acting as ads promoting products. Opposition towards these mascots is an unfamiliar subject for most non-Natives. The dispute between the NFL team, Washington R*dskins, and Native American communities is one of the most well-known and publicized controversies. However, Native Americans have been battling with the team since the late 1960s. In recent years, the movement has gained fervor and transparency among news corporations, media agencies, and within the general public. The Center for American Progress released a report in response to concerns that Native mascots are not only symbolically ignorant, they are also psychologically and culturally harmful to Native American youth. The study revealed that Native mascots and names contribute to a negative educational environment:

Research shows that these team Indian-oriented names and mascots can establish an unwelcome and hostile learning environment for AI/AN students. It also reveals that the presence of AI/AN mascots directly results in lower self-esteem and mental health for AI/An adolescents and young adults. And just as importantly, studies show that these mascots undermine the educational experience of all students, particularly those with little or no contact with Indigenous and AI/AN people. In other words, these stereotypical representations are too often understood as factual representations and thus "contribute to the development of cultural biases and prejudices."[11]

However, Native youth are not the only community members being harmed by mascots. Racist and anti-Native sentiments, attitudes, and behaviors towards anyone who opposes the mascot is increasing, especially on social media platforms. While negative publicity and studies show the detrimental impacts of Native mascots, the team has gone above and beyond to promote the idea that they are unequivocally “honoring” Native Americans, not harming them. Dan Snyder, the owner of the R*dskins, even established a foundation to drive this point home. The Washington R*dskins: Original Americans Foundation was established in 2014 to combat the negative media attention the team received. Twenty-five tribes were originally part of the foundation but as of April 2017, that number has dwindled to fourteen. Society is becoming more informed about the harm Native mascots have on real people, and it remains of high importance to question the integrity of Native imagery and its effects.

It is important to remember that Native imagery depicted through the lens of settlers has always perpetuated stereotypes. Regardless of the intent or means of representation, this misuse of imagery relies on ill-conceived perceptions and expectations of romanticized ideas that settlers have maintained for centuries. As Robert F. Berkhofer writes in The White Man’s Indian:

White hopes for the exploitation of Indians and their lands certainly shaped their perceptions of Native Americans from the very beginning of contact...If the primitivistic version of Indian goodness promised easy fulfillment of European desires, the image of the bad Indian proved the absolute necessity, if difficulty, of forcing Native Americans from  ‘savage’ to European ways through the exploitation of their physical bodies, spiritual souls, or tribal lands...In fact, the whole debate...over the nature of the Indian can be viewed as a dispute among colonists, clergy, and crown officials about the proper method of exploiting the native, for the consequences of the arguments benefited some groups at the expense of others.[12]

The Exploitation of Native Imagery for Capitalism

Capitalism in the U.S. evolved with and through acts of colonization. The dispossession of lands from Native people, the near eradication of their languages and cultural identity, and the commodification of Native stereotypes are directly tied to the exploitation of Native imagery over multiple centuries. The technological developments at the end of the twentieth-century became convenient vehicles of capitalism and colonialism for many corporate hegemonies. One of the largest corporations in the U.S. began selling pillows, blankets, t-shirts, aprons, posters, and a variety of other items printed with Edward S. Curtis photographs. Walmart retailed these items for as much as $105.00. My friend, Kayla Begay, (Hoopa Valley Tribal member and is of Hupa, Yurok, and Karuk descent) reported the items and demanded that Walmart remove certain items from their website. As mentioned previously, the bulk of Curtis’ photographs were taken between 1907-1927. Since then, over five generations of Native people, and counting, live and thrive in the U.S. Over five generations of Native people are resisting systemic oppression. Over five generations are fighting and dying to protect their culture. Over five generations of Hupa ancestors passed through this world only to have their photographs be printed on items and sold by Walmart.              

The items printed with images of Hupa tribal members were ancestors to living relatives. One relative reported that a man in one of Curtis’ photos was “…an uncle’s father and that he has many grandchildren.” In Hupa tradition, you are not allowed to say deceased people's names without permission or else you are cursing at their relatives. Kayla stated the sale of the items is even more abhorrent. Many Hupa tribal members also stepped forward to voice their frustration at the disrespect being shown to their ancestors:

“This is also why we don’t take pictures of dances and/or post/share on Facebook, or anywhere on the internet.” -Anonymous

“...people need to stop taking pictures of the ceremonies and posting them. Never know who will end up on a bag. People will hate on Indians, but quick to make a buck off of them.” -Anonymous

“This is so wrong on many levels – to gain profit on Our Ceremonial ways and to show no regard to Our Elders We Hold so Dear. Where is the RESPECT from Walmart Corporation?” -Anonymous

Walmart quickly responded to Kayla with an apology and assured her they were working on taking down the items with Hupa photographs on them. However, even after Walmart removed those items, hundreds of other items printed with Curtis’ photographs remained on the website. A poster of a famous Curtis photograph, a Navajo Ye’ii Bicheii dancer and mask, retailed for $104.98. Selling photographs of sacred items and deceased ancestors for hundreds of dollars, to a largely non-Native population, is despicably offensive and egregious.

In addition to the Hupa and Navajo, many Native American tribes have strong beliefs that uphold a balance between the physical and spiritual worlds that we inhabit. Respect for the living as well as those who have passed on is critical in maintaining this balance. Native ceremonies, regalia, and sacred objects are used to connect, strengthen, and show appreciation for this balance. Therefore, they are honored as living beings that have souls. Historic images of these items should not be monetized or used to build profit for non-Native industries. As capitalism grows and evolves, corporations are taking advantage of the opportunity to profit from Native imagery, regardless of the source, backlash, or negative feedback.

Walmart reproducing historic Native images and placing them on various types of products is only one example of the continued exploitation of Native imagery and culture. As Native people, we see how Native imagery has been co-opted by non-Natives to secure their own profit and fulfill their own agendas; whether it’s pushed by capitalism, being the white savior, cultural appropriation, or even further the acceptance of Pan-Indianism - it's wrong. The dehumanization of Native people runs deep through the veins of this country and when non-Natives fail to recognize this pattern, and the material and ontological harms ripple throughout our communities.

How can we care for and protect the images of ourselves, our families, and our ancestors? How do we represent ourselves within the context of our own cultures and histories, in our own voices? These questions and others explore how Native people, artists, and communities can resist the commodification and exploitation of Native imagery in mainstream society. The popularity and aesthetic of Native imagery will never cease to exist, as such, capitalism will find new ways to exploit us, our cultures, and our way of life. It's worth considering the historical implications, development, and further exploitation of Native imagery in a capitalistic society in order to refute it.

Imagery is important. Representation is important.

[1] Raphael Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe: Laws of Occupation, Analysis of Government,

Proposals of Redress (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1944), 79.

[2] https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/understanding-culture-and-language-ethnocide-native

[3] Lyman, The Vanishing Race and Other Illusions, 19-20.

[4] Lyman, The Vanishing Race and Other Illusions, 62.

[5] http://americanexperience.si.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Manifest-Destiny-and-Indian-Removal.pdf

[6] Smith, “The Gift of the Face: Portraiture and Time in Edward S. Curtis’s “The North American Indian” by Shamoon Zamir (review)”, Native American and Indigenous Studies, Volume 2, Issue 2, 2015, pp. 211-212

[7] Time story quoted in Mary Ann Weston, Native Americans in the News: Images of Indians in the

Twentieth Century Press (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1996), 137.

[8] https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/11/23/us/dakota-access-pipeline-protest-map.html?mcubz=3

[9] https://www.aclu.org/blog/free-speech/rights-protesters/how-many-law-enforcement-agencies-does-it-take-subdue-peaceful?redirect=blog/speak-freely/how-many-law-enforcement-agencies-does-it-take-subdue-peaceful-protest

[10] http://www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/what-it-takes-for-aboriginal-people-to-make-the-news-1.2514466

[11] Stegman, Phillips, “Missing the Point: The Real Impact of Native Mascots and Team Names on American Indian and Alaska Native Youth”, 2014, https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/StegmanAIANmascots-reportv2.pdf , 1.

[12] Berkhofer, Jr., Robert F. The White Man‟s Indian: Images of the American Indian from Columbus to the Present. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1978, pg. 119.